Dual coding
Dual coding theory suggests that the mind processes information along two different channels, verbal and nonverbal[1]. Supporting evidence shows that memory for some verbal information is enhanced if a relevant visual is also presented or if the learner can imagine a visual image to go with it[2].
Key points
- According to Paivio, there are two ways a person could expand on learned material: verbal associations and imagery[3].
- Studies on abstract and concrete words found that participants remembered concrete words better than abstract words[4].
- If associations between a word and an image cannot be formed, it is much harder to remember and recall the word later[5].
- The theory is described as valid only for tests on which people are asked to focus on identifying how concepts are related[5].
- Dual coding theory is not accepted by everyone, and the propositional theory is one alternative[6].
How it works
Imagery and verbal information are processed differently and along distinct channels in the human mind, creating separate representations for information processed in each channel[7]. The mental codes for these representations are used to organise incoming information that can be acted upon, stored and retrieved for later use[7]. Both imagery and verbal codes can be used when recalling information[7].
In developing the theory, Paivio used the idea that forming mental imagery aids learning through the picture superiority effect[5]. Analogue codes are used to represent images mentally, and they retain the main perceptual features of whatever is represented[7].
What the research says
In one experiment, Paivio found that participants shown a rapid sequence of pictures and a rapid sequence of words were better at recalling the images when asked to recall in any order[8]. They more readily recalled the sequential order of the words than the order of the pictures[8]. These results supported Paivio's hypothesis that verbal information is processed differently from visual information[8].
In an experiment by Lee Brooks, participants did either a visual task or a verbal task and responded verbally, visually or manually[7]. Interference occurred when visual perception was mixed with manipulation of the visual task, and this supported the idea of two codes used to represent information mentally[7].
Researchers have used fMRI and event-related potentials to determine which brain areas are active with different stimuli, and the results have supported the dual-coding theory[9]. Other research with PET scans and fMRI is described as showing improved memory for spoken words and sentences when they were paired with an image, imagined or real[9].
Where it has been applied
The theory has been applied to multimedia presentations[10]. Because these presentations require both spatial and verbal working memory, individuals are described as dual coding the information, and they are more likely to recall it when tested later[10].
Paivio's work is described as having implications for literacy, visual mnemonics, idea generation, interface design and the development of educational materials, among others[11].
Limits and alternatives
There has been controversy about the limitations of the theory[12]. It does not take into account the possibility of cognition being mediated by something other than words and images[12]. Not enough research has been done to determine whether words and images are the only way items are remembered[12]. Many researchers have nevertheless agreed that only words and images are used in mental representation[12].
Another limitation is that the theory is described as valid only for tests on which people are asked to focus on identifying how concepts are related[5]. The difficulty of remembering a word without a word-image association limits the theory's effectiveness, but it is still described as valid over a wide range of circumstances and usable to improve memory[5].
John Anderson and Gordon Bower proposed the propositional theory as an alternative account of how knowledge is mentally represented[6]. It claims that mental representations are stored as propositions rather than as images[6]. Here a proposition is defined as the meaning that underlies the relationship between concepts[6].
Sources
- B Paivio, Allan; Rogers, T. B..; Smythe, Padric C. (1968). "Why are pictures easier to recall than words?" . Psychonomic Science . 11 (4): 137– 138. doi : 10.3758/BF03331011 . doi.org
- C Anderson, John R. (2014). Human Associative Memory . Taylor and Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-76988-0 . OCLC 871224620 . search.worldcat.org
- C Sadoski, Mark; Paivio, Allan (2004), A Dual Coding Theoretical Model of Reading , Theoretical Models and Processes of Reading, vol. 1, DE: International Reading Association, pp. 1329– 1362, doi : 10.1598/0872075028.47 (inactive 12 July 2025), ISBN 0-87207-502-8 , retrieved 2022-04-23 {{ citation }} : CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2025 ( link ) dx.doi.org; Sternberg, Robert J (January 2016). Cognitive psychology . Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-64465-6 . OCLC 1037299606 . search.worldcat.org
- B Hargis, Gickling, Charles H, Edward E (May 1978). "The Function of Imagery in Word Recognition Development". The Reading Teacher . 31 : 870– 874. {{ cite journal }} : CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link ); Sadoski, Mark; Willson, Victor L.; Holcomb, Angelia; Boulware-Gooden, Regina (2004). "Verbal and Nonverbal Predictors of Spelling Performance" . Journal of Literacy Research . 36 (4): 461– 478. doi : 10.1207/s15548430jlr3604_2 . ISSN 1086-296X . doi.org; Yui, Lin; Ng, Roslin; Perera-W.A., Hiran (2017-01-14). "Concrete vs abstract words – what do you recall better? A study on dual coding theory" . doi : 10.7287/peerj.preprints.2719v1 . {{ cite journal }} : Cite journal requires | journal= ( help ) doi.org
- C Reed, Stephen K. (12 April 2012). Cognition : theories and applications . Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-133-49228-3 . OCLC 1040947645 . search.worldcat.org
- C Friedenberg, Jay. (2016). Cognitive science : an introduction to the study of mind . Sage. ISBN 978-1-4833-4741-7 . OCLC 989659597 . search.worldcat.org
- C Sternberg, Robert J (January 2016). Cognitive psychology . Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-305-64465-6 . OCLC 1037299606 . search.worldcat.org
- B Paivio, Allan (1969). "Mental imagery in associative learning and memory". Psychological Review . 76 (3): 241– 263. doi : 10.1037/h0027272 . ISSN 0033-295X . doi.org
- B Crosson, Bruce; Ford, Anastasia; McGregor, Keith M.; Meinzer, Marcus; Cheshkov, Sergey; Li, Xiufeng; Walker-Batson, Delaina; Briggs, Richard W. (2010). "Functional imaging and related techniques: An introduction for rehabilitation researchers" . The Journal of Rehabilitation Research and Development . 47 (2): vii– xxxiv. doi : 10.1682/jrrd.2010.02.0017 . ISSN 0748-7711 . PMC 3225087 . PMID 2059332 ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- B Brunyé, Tad T.; Taylor, Holly A.; Rapp, David N. (2007). "Repetition and dual coding in procedural multimedia presentations". Applied Cognitive Psychology . 22 (7): 877– 895. doi : 10.1002/acp.1396 . ISSN 0888-4080 . S2CID 1853751 . doi.org
- B Anderson, John Robert. (2005). Cognitive psychology and its implications . Worth Publishers. ISBN 0-7167-0110-3 . OCLC 587804014 . search.worldcat.org; Just, Marcel Adam; Newman, Sharlene D; Keller, Timothy A; McEleney, Alice; Carpenter, Patricia A (2004). "Imagery in sentence comprehension: an fMRI study" . NeuroImage . 21 (1): 112– 124. doi : 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2003.08.042 . ISSN 1053-8119 . PMID 14741648 . S2CID 2912716 . figshare.com; Sun, Ron, 1960– (2012). Duality of the mind : a bottom-up approach toward cognition . Routledge. ISBN 978-0-8058-3880-0 . OCLC 858009136 . {{ cite book }} : CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( link ) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( link ) search.worldcat.org
- C Pylyshyn, Zenon W. (1973), "What the Mind's Eye Tells the Mind's Brain: A Critique of Mental Imagery", Images, Perception, and Knowledge , Springer Netherlands, pp. 1– 36, doi : 10.1007/978-94-010-1193-8_1 , ISBN 978-94-010-1195-2 doi.org